- Christianity and Islam emerged as a minor religion in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Civilizations; Christianity in the Middle East and Roman Empire, and Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.
- The Arabian Peninsula originally consisted of nomadic/pastoral Bedouins, cosmopolitan coastal cities, and agricultural kingdoms within the scattered oasis, all recognizing a plethora of gods and spirits.
- One city in Arabia, Mecca, was a the site of the Kaaba. This became a central worshiping spot for all gods and spirits (360+).
- The Arabian Peninsula being situated between two Monotheistic (Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism) civilizations, the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Persian Empire, helped increase the susceptibility of that form of religion in advance of Islam.
- Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (570-632 C.E.) born in Mecca, lost his parents young, and was adopted by his uncle. Muhammad worked as a shepherd to pay his keep, and eventually became a trader and traveler. At 25 he married a wealthy widow and fathered six children. During periods of meditation in the mountains he purportedly had a religious awakening that left him convinced of being the messenger of Allah to the Arab people. Over 22 years (beginning in 610), his revelations were documented in the Quran which became the sacred text of Islam.
- The message of the Quran seemed to challenge the then modern day norms of polytheistic worship, and the social injustices of tribal / clan life.
- The five pillars of the Quran were:
- Belief in only Allah and Muhammad as the messenger of God.
- Prayer five times a day.
- Social justice in the forms of generosity towards the poor and needy.
- A month of fasting during Ramadan.
- Pilgrimage to Mecca.
- Muhammad's continual calls for social justice angered the elite Meccan clan leaders leading to an exodus from Mecca and the formation of Medina.
- Ultimately the Medina Islamic community spread rapidly through successful military excursions, negotiation of alliances with tribes, and the entering of marriage alliances. It was this successful merging of faith and military might which created such a seemingly strong foundation to spread Islam across all of Arabia and to the surrounding regions.
- With the surrounding empires no longer at the strength they once entertained, the Persian empire fell to the Arab empire, and much of the Byzantine empire’s eastern front had been captured. This was seemingly incited through to capture profitable trade routes to further expand the empire.
- Interestingly it was the lack of forced conversion to Islam which reduced social strife among the conquered people. The existing monotheistic religions, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Judaism, continued to expand and operate within the Arab empire borders. Over time, many conquered nations adopted Islam, the Arab culture, or a combination of the two. Some did this to take advantage of the social benefits available to those of Islamic faith, others through a spontaneous natural incorporation.
- After Muhammad's death, division occurred over the role of his successor (caliph). This spurned several tribal rebellion; the most enduring being that of the Sunni Muslims who believed caliphs were rightful political and military leaders, and the Shia who believed that it should be derived from Muhammad's bloodline. This division began as a political conflict, and over times divided them over religious meaning.
- The question, “What does it mean to be a Muslim, to submit wholly to Allah?” became critical as the Arab empire continued to incorporate new cultures. It was answered in one by by the Islamic law (sharia) developed through deductive reasoning by a consensus of scholars. Another answer came in the form of the mystical form of Islam known as Sufism which focused on meditation on the Quran and renunciation of the material world.
- The divide between women and men during this era followed the traditional male dominance and subservience by women; although the Quran did provide a mix of rights, restrictions, and protection for women which reduce the number of infanticide present during the time. The separation between men and women became a standard, and even a sense of piety for both genders. As time went on, increased restrictions were applied to women through sharia law, while Sufism maintained greater participation by women within religion and society.
- Islam Case Studies
- India
- Turkic-speaking warriors from Central Asia brought Islam to Northern India. Muslim communities emerged to include disillusioned Buddhists and low-caste Hindus, those attempting to avoid taxes imposed on non-Muslims. Sufis helped to bridge the gap between certain forms of Hinduism facilitating conversion.
- Anatolia (Turkey)
- Turkish invaders eroded Byzantine authority, and again Sufis help to increase adoption, but the settlement by Turkish speakers helped facilitate an oer 90% adoption towards Islam. This became the center of the Ottoman Empire, and with the reduced cultural barrier (as compared to India), conversion continued unabated.
- West Africa
- Muslim traders across the Sahara brought Islam to West Africa. Adoption was gradual and peaceful, as merchants brought literate officials for state administration and seeming religious legitimacy. Assimilation remained mostly in the social centers and did not spread to the rural communities.
- Spain
- Conquering Arab and Berber forces brought Islam to Spain, and allowed for a social harmony between Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Remaining Christians incorporated themselves into Muslim life and adopted main Islamic traditions. Ultimately these Arabized Christians remained infidels and second-class citizens, and spurned a separation into militarized factions. This continued until Christian reconquest of Spain, and while Muslims were allowed to stay, they were no longer allowed to convert.
- As with many early religions, Islam enjoyed significant expansion into surrounding regions through trade and warfare, incorporated additional cultures, and experienced fracturing as it redefined its purpose.
- Pastoral Peoples existed due to an inability to create agriculture in the lands in which they lived: inner Eurasia, sub-Saharan Africa, Arabian and Saharan deserts, sub-arctic regions, and the plateau of Tibet.
- Due to their need for large grazing areas, Pastoral Societies tended to have significantly smaller populations organized around kinship-based groups.
- Women held higher status and had less restrictions within society as they were expected to perform the same tasks as men, in addition to the child rearing needs.
- Pastoral Varieties:
- Inner Eurasian Steppes
- People: Turks, Mongols, Huns
- Animals: Horses, Sheep, Goats, Cattle, Bactrian Camel
- Southwestern and Central Asia
- People: Mongol, Uzbeks, Ottomans
- Animals: Sheep, Goats, Horses, Camels, Donkeys
- Arabian and Saharan Deserts
- People: Bedouin, Arabs, Berbers
- Animals: Dromedary Camel, Sheep
- Grasslands of Sub-Saharan Africa
- People: Masai, Fulbe, Turkana
- Animals: Cattle, Sheep, Goats
- Sub-arctic Scandinavia, Russia
- People: Sami, Nenets
- Animals: Reindeer
- Tibetan Plateau
- People: Tibetans
- Animals: Yaks, Sheep, Cashmere Goats
- Primary characteristic of nomads is their mobility, following the seasonal changes in vegetation in water.
- Nomads relied on their agricultural counterparts as living off of animals entirely wasn’t feasible for most.
- Political unity was difficult due to the fierce infighting and independent nature of most clans. Though the states which were established subside don raiding, trading, and/or extortion.
- Horseback and camel riding provided the military superiority and mobility necessary to mobilize against larger civilizations.
- The earliest nomadic empire within the Mongolian steppes, Xiongnu, subsisted on the tribute system within itself and with China, and changed the political system into a clan based hierarchical system. The Xiongnu system became the basis for the Turks and Mongols.
- The Mongol Empire was the largest land-based empire in human history. It joined the nomadic and agricultural civilizations of Eurasia. It left a relatively small cultural impact on the surrounding regions; no new language, religion, or lasting civilization. Conquered people became subordinates, and useful people were put to work within society.
- Temujin / Chinggis Khan unified the fractured Mongol Empire and set upon a course of expansion to maintain a sense of unification. With his continued legacy (Ogodei, Mongkey and Khubilai) created and maintained an empire which included China, Korea, Central Asia, Russia, Middle East, and Parts of Europe.
- The Mongol armies came to supremacy through good timing and military strategy, and pure brutality and destruction. China outnumbered them 100 to 1, and they lacked the military supremacy.
- Mongol Encounters:
- China vs. Mongols
- The Mongols had continually plundered and exploited the riches of China of the years, and let many Chinese to believe that their success was mandated by heaven. While some Mongol adoption of Chinese infrastructure and government occurred, Mongols remained independent culturally until their unification fractured.,
- Persia vs. Mongols
- Islamic Persia was conquered briefly by the infidel Mongols, and brought with it slaughter and destruction never before seen by the Persians. Additionally heavy taxes were levied against the agricultural land, and due to a lack of irrigation maintenance, destroyed fertile lands. The Mongols who conquered Persia converted to Islam and a number abandoned their nomadic ways.
- Russia vs. Mongols
- The Russian princedoms were slaughter with the incorporation of battering rams and catapults learned from the Chinese and Persians. The Mongols did not occupy Russia as it had little to offer beyond pastoral lands. Religious tolerance allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to flourish. Eventually the centralization of Russia in Moscow allowed them to break the Mongol hold , and eventually led to the demise of their expansive efforts.
Ch 12 (Worlds of 15th Century)
- Paleolithic Persistence existed within Australia and North America. While agricultural improvement were occurring in these regions, distinct hunter / gatherer traditions continued to exist.
- Several agricultural village societies continued to exist which resisted larger incorporation and hierarchical government structure (Igbo in West Africa, and the Iroquois in North America).
- The Ming Dynasty in China governed through Confucian and Daoist philosophy, and emerged post Mongol subjugation. During this time the capital was moved to Beijing, civil service exams were reestablished, and much of the Mongol damage was repaired in a historical approach to recover what was lost. Additionally, a massive naval excursion (the largest known) was undertaken in an effort to enroll distant peoples in the tribute system to reestablish the Chinese dominance.
- In Western Europe, a populace rebuilding was underway as the plague had ravaged most of the region. Additionally, the fractured nations were in a state of nation rebuilding and religious expansion, although not in the same unified way as the Chinese. The Renaissance was underway, and created a new sense of wealth and artistic expression across Europe. From a naval expedition perspective, Columbus of Spain made his way to uncharted lands in the Americas, while Vasco da Gama explored the coasts of Africa and India.
- The Ottoman Empire encompassed a huge region including the Middle East, coastal North Africa, and parts of the black sea and eastern Europe. Their defeat of the remaining Byzantine Empire removed the remaining Christian influence in their region.
- The Songhay Empire emerged in West Africa as a new Islamic Empire largely limited in faith to the urban centers. It operated the crucial trans-Saharan trade routes and allowed for the continued Islamic expansion.
- The Mughal Empire in India also emerged as a Turkic Islamic nation which blended both Muslim and Hindu traditions.
- Aztec empire of northern Mexico were a semi-nomadic people which expanded through alliance and conquest.
- Inca Empire created the largest imperial state along the Andes Mountains. Larger the than Aztecs. They created a bureaucratic system to incorporate conquered peoples.
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